Journey and Joy

The three states that make up the Germanic core of central Europe run the gamut of topographic diversity. The territory of eastern Germany, for example, consists almost entirely of the lowland North European Plain, and only its southern reaches extend into the foothills of the Central Uplands. Switzerland and Austria, on the other hand, are dominated by the Alps. In the former the most open and rolling country is the Mittelland plateau, which sweeps in an arc between the Alps and the Jura from Lake Geneva in the southwest to Lake Constance in the northeast.   In Austria the Danube Valley comprises the most extensive lowland, broadening out in the east to form the Vienna basin. Only western Germany embraces a complete cross section of all of these physiographic regions, including the northern plain, the Central Uplands, the Alpine foreland of Bavaria—a continuation of the Mittelland plateau of Switzerland—and the foothills of the Alps. In addition, in the southw...

The islands of Great Britain and Ireland are occupied by two states—the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (Eire). Despite their similarity of location, climate, vegetation, and soils, the two islands differ markedly in bedrock and hence in mineral endowment. Ireland, which is almost totally lacking in coal, was primarily agricultural until the late 20th century and remains relatively sparsely populated. Britain, on the other hand, is one of the nations of the world most richly endowed with coal and, thanks to its North Sea deposits of oil and gas, ranks as western Europe's major petroleum producer. The cradle of the Industrial Revolution, Britain is one of the most urbanized countries in the world and one of the most densely populated. London is the largest conurbation in western Europe, and the Birmingham agglomeration also has more than 2 million inhabitants. Owing to their location, the islands are the most maritime parts of Europe. For example, ...

The countries on Europe's western fringe are extremely diverse topographically. On one extreme, France extends to the slopes of Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in the Alps, while on the other, a major part of the Netherlands lies below sea level. An arc of lowlands runs from the foothills of the Pyrenees in the southwest into Germany on the northeast. To the west of it lie the rolling hills of Brittany and Normandy, and to the east the Massif Central, the Ardennes plateau, the Vosges and Jura mountains, and finally, the Alps themselves. Climatically the western fringe of Europe is characterized by mild, generally snowless winters and cool, often cloudy summers. There is precipitation throughout the year, with slightly more occurring in the early autumn than in the rest of the year. Throughout the region, a broadleaf deciduous forest constitutes the native vegetation, though there are also extensive stands of pine in the sandy coastal districts of southwestern Fr...

Topographically, the south of Europe is dominated by young, rugged mountains, many peaks of which are over 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in elevation. Plains and lowlands make up only a small fraction of its total area. By far the most extensive lowland is the Po Valley of northern Italy. The Mediterranean basin occupies a transitional zone between the mild, moist climate of western Europe and the hot, dry climate of North Africa. Indeed, its climate may be thought of as a seasonal blend of the two. In winter, when the Azores high-pressure area is displaced to the south, the region receives almost its total annual precipitation, whereas in summer the northern displacement of the Azores high results in a prolonged period of drought. The alternation of rainy winters and dry summers produces a scrubby, xerophytic (drought-resistant) vegetation type known as maquis. Soils, too, reflect these extremes of moisture, being leached of their minerals and soluble nutrients in...

Although Europe is the second smallest of the major land areas of the globe, it is physically and culturally the most diverse. Because of this diversity, at least seven regions can be identified within the continent. One of these regions is the Mediterranean south, where there are four principal states—Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal—and a portion of a fifth—Turkey. This region is dominated by a dry, subtropical climate, and because its countries are overwhelmingly agricultural in character, this climatic pattern has a critical influence on their way of life. A second region might be termed the "western fringe," for here there are three major states—Belgium, France, and the Netherlands—whose location on the Atlantic doorstep of Europe has been of fundamental importance to their development: they have continental footholds but essentially maritime outlooks. A third region consists of the islands of Britain and Ireland. Each of these "insular realms,...

Europe's position in the middle latitudes on the eastern side of an ocean, with a coastline deeply indented by bodies of water, is a major controlling fact in climate. Marine influences, resulting in an absence of temperature extremes and in plentiful precipitation, high relative humidity, and a high degree of cloudiness, penetrate far inland north of the Alpine mountain zone.   Continental influences, resulting in extremes of temperature, relatively low precipitation, low relative humidity, and prevalence of clear skies, control the broad base where Europe joins Asia. These influences are in balance along a north-south belt through Norway, Denmark, and Germany. South of the Alpine mountain zone, seasonal migrations of the subtropical high-pressure system dominate. This produces marked seasonal variation in precipitation—winters are rainy and summers droughty. Summer temperatures are highest in the Mediterranean area: Athens averages 80° F (27° C) for July; Gr...

The coastline of Europe is more fragmented than that of any other continent. It is estimated to have a length of 50,000 miles (80,000 km). Of the shallow seas that indent the continent, the Baltic, fringing the North European Plain, provides water access from the Atlantic eastward into the Russian Federation and the Baltic Republics. With few spots deeper than 600 feet (180 meters), this sea is connected with the North Sea only by narrow channels. The major navigable channel past Copenhagen, Denmark, is less than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide at its narrowest. The North Sea, likewise shallow, fills the opening between the British Isles and the mainland. The White Sea indents the Arctic coast of the Russian Federation. All of these seas result from the drowning of lowlands by the melting waters of the Ice Age. Southern Europe is edged by the Mediterranean Sea, which is much deeper than the seas of the north and fills a series of basins. Compartmented by peninsulas and islands, t...