The Climate of Europe

Europe's position in the middle latitudes on the eastern side of an ocean, with a coastline deeply indented by bodies of water, is a major controlling fact in climate. Marine influences, resulting in an absence of temperature extremes and in plentiful precipitation, high relative humidity, and a high degree of cloudiness, penetrate far inland north of the Alpine mountain zone. 

Continental influences, resulting in extremes of temperature, relatively low precipitation, low relative humidity, and prevalence of clear skies, control the broad base where Europe joins Asia. These influences are in balance along a north-south belt through Norway, Denmark, and Germany. South of the Alpine mountain zone, seasonal migrations of the subtropical high-pressure system dominate. This produces marked seasonal variation in precipitation—winters are rainy and summers droughty.

Summer temperatures are highest in the Mediterranean area: Athens averages 80° F (27° C) for July; Granada, Spain, 77° F (25° C); and Turin, Italy, 74° F (23.5° C). Summer averages decrease northward and oceanward. Tromsø, Norway, averages 55° F (13° C) for July. In winter, temperatures become progressively lower from southwest to northeast across the continent. Thus Lisbon, Portugal, averages 51° F (10.5° C) for January, whereas Archangel, Russian Federation, averages 7° F (−14° C) in the same month. 

The Atlantic coast has relatively high winter temperatures: coastal Norway at the Arctic Circle has winters no colder than New York City. Precipitation is mostly rain along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, though snow is not rare on islands off the northwestern shores, such as the British Isles. Northwestern coastal areas receive over 80 inches (2,000 mm) of precipitation annually in many places. Precipitation decreases progressively southeastward to the Caspian Sea—for example, Astrakhan, Russian Federation, receives a yearly average of 5.8 inches (148 mm).

Over most of the continent, precipitation is sufficient to support forest vegetation. Only on the Spanish Meseta, in the southern Russian Federation, and in Ukraine are there areas of semiarid and arid climate where short grass (steppe) or desert vegetation predominates. Along the Arctic shores and at high elevations in the mountains, low summer temperatures prevent forest growth. In those places is either tundra or no vegetation at all.

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