Journey and Joy

Charles Wilkes (1798–1877) was an American naval officer and explorer. Wilkes was born in New York City on April 3, 1798. He entered the navy as a midshipman in 1818, did service during the next few years in Mediterranean and Pacific areas, and in 1832–1833 did survey work in Narragansett Bay, which led to his appointment in Washington, D.C., to head a depot of charts and instruments that eventually became the United States Naval Observatory. In 1838 Wilkes was put in command of an important expedition for scientific exploration that took him to several island groups of the South Pacific, Australia, the Antarctic coastal areas now known as Wilkes Land, the Hawaiian Islands, the northwest coast of the United States, and islands of Oceania, completing a voyage around the world before his return to New York in the summer of 1842. During the next 20 years his main occupation was the preparation of records of this expedition. He wrote a 5-volume Narrative of the United States Explori...

Hubert Wilkins (1888–1958) was an Australian polar explorer and aviator who made the first west-to-east Arctic aerial crossing. Born in Mount Bryan East, Australia, on Oct. 31, 1888, George Hubert Wilkins was educated in electrical engineering at the School of Mines and Industries in Adelaide, after which he took up photography and learned the fundamentals of flying. As a newsreel photographer, he covered (1912–1913) the Balkan War for British newspaper and motion-picture concerns. The American explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson selected Wilkins as official photographer for the Canadian Arctic Expedition (1913–1917), and his loyalty and devotion to the aims of the expedition resulted in his promotion to second in command. In September 1917, during World War I, Wilkins joined the Australian Flying Corps on the French front as a photographer. In 1919 he competed, unsuccessfully, for the London Daily Mail prize of $50,000 for a flight from England to Australia. Wilkins was second in co...

Ice Island, a large, tabular piece of glacial ice adrift in the Arctic or the Antarctic oceans. Arctic ice islands are less common and generally smaller than Antarctic ice islands, or icebergs (see Iceberg), but their location makes them more useful and durable for research. Scientists have used drifting ice stations since the Soviet Union established North Pole I on floe ice in May 1937, but ice islands have been found preferable because they are longer-lasting. Formation of Arctic Ice Islands The glaciers of Canada's Ellesmere Island form a massive ice shelf that floats on the water at the ocean edge and yet remains attached to the shore. Progressive advances of the glaciers push the shelf seaward, and the combined action of winds, tides, and waves breaks loose large pieces of the ice. The ice islands then drift with the polar pack ice in the clockwise current of the Beaufort Sea area. The islands sometimes are many square miles in extent. Their surface appearance is distinc...

British Antarctic Territory is a colony that extends between 20° and 80° west longitude and from latitude 60° south to the South Pole. It consists of the South Orkney and South Shetland islands and a wedge of Antarctica, including the Antarctic Peninsula and the islands adjacent to the peninsula. Most of the islands are rugged, with many glaciers, and the Antarctic Peninsula is mountainous, Mt. Andrew Jackson rising to about 13,700 feet (4,175 meters). A snow-covered plateau extends along the peninsula at a height declining from about 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) in the south to about 4,000 feet (1,200 meters) in the north. Covered by ice, the continental area is fringed by ice shelves 800 feet (240 meters) thick. The territory has no permanent inhabitants, but there are scientific and field stations manned by scientists and technicians. The area was discovered in 1819–1821 and taken possession of by Britain over the period to 1832. The territory, created in 1962, is administered...

In area, the European Russian Federation is as large as the other six regions of peninsular Europe put together, but its population is less than half as great. This is a reflection of the marginal quality of its land, which, despite an overall topographic uniformity, runs the gamut of climate, vegetation, and soil types. Rolling plains dominate the landscape of the region, but northwest of Moscow, along the middle Volga River, and in eastern Ukraine are hills whose elevations exceed 1,000 feet (300 meters). Because of its vast extent, the region drains in four different directions: northward into the Arctic Ocean, northwestward into the Baltic Sea, southwestward into the Black Sea, and southeastward into the Caspian Sea. The largest rivers in each of these drainage basins are the Northern Dvina, the Western Dvina, the Dnieper, and the Volga, respectively. Temperatures decline toward the north and east, while precipitation decreases toward the south and east. As a re...

The three Scandinavian states—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—together with Finland and Iceland form the most sparsely settled region in Europe, an indication of the marginality of their environment. Owing to topography and climate, nearly three fourths of Norway and fully seven-eighths of Iceland is unproductive land, incapable of supporting trees or crops. Most of the remaining one fourth of Norway is in forest, as is over one half of Sweden and nearly three fourths of Finland. In lowland Denmark, with its deep, lime-rich soils, the proportions are reversed—nearly three-fourths of the country being in crops or in pasture.   However, Denmark is almost totally lacking in minerals, except for limestone, sand, and clay. Iceland, too, being volcanic in origin, has no minerals of consequence, and such metals as Norway and Finland possess are mostly low-grade. Sweden, however, has large deposits of high-grade iron ore, in its central and northern areas. Norway mines c...

Two major lowland corridors cross eastern Europe: the northern plain, within which virtually the entire territory of Poland lies, and the Danube Valley, which is shared by Hungary, Croatia, Yugoslavia, and Romania. Between them lie the low mountains and plateaus of Bohemia and Moravia and the higher alpine peaks of the Tatra in Slovakia, as well as the arc of the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps in Romania. South of the Danube are the mountain cores of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Albania, and Bulgaria. The first four countries lie amid the Dinaric Alps, and the last is traversed by the Balkan and Rhodope ranges. Bulgaria's principal lowland area is the valley of the Maritsa River, which opens southeastward toward Turkey and the Aegean Sea. The climate of the east is continental, with cold snowy winters and warm humid summers. There is precipitation at all seasons, but it is insufficient to support a forest cover in the lower plains areas ...

The three states that make up the Germanic core of central Europe run the gamut of topographic diversity. The territory of eastern Germany, for example, consists almost entirely of the lowland North European Plain, and only its southern reaches extend into the foothills of the Central Uplands. Switzerland and Austria, on the other hand, are dominated by the Alps. In the former the most open and rolling country is the Mittelland plateau, which sweeps in an arc between the Alps and the Jura from Lake Geneva in the southwest to Lake Constance in the northeast.   In Austria the Danube Valley comprises the most extensive lowland, broadening out in the east to form the Vienna basin. Only western Germany embraces a complete cross section of all of these physiographic regions, including the northern plain, the Central Uplands, the Alpine foreland of Bavaria—a continuation of the Mittelland plateau of Switzerland—and the foothills of the Alps. In addition, in the southw...

The islands of Great Britain and Ireland are occupied by two states—the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (Eire). Despite their similarity of location, climate, vegetation, and soils, the two islands differ markedly in bedrock and hence in mineral endowment. Ireland, which is almost totally lacking in coal, was primarily agricultural until the late 20th century and remains relatively sparsely populated. Britain, on the other hand, is one of the nations of the world most richly endowed with coal and, thanks to its North Sea deposits of oil and gas, ranks as western Europe's major petroleum producer. The cradle of the Industrial Revolution, Britain is one of the most urbanized countries in the world and one of the most densely populated. London is the largest conurbation in western Europe, and the Birmingham agglomeration also has more than 2 million inhabitants. Owing to their location, the islands are the most maritime parts of Europe. For example, ...

The countries on Europe's western fringe are extremely diverse topographically. On one extreme, France extends to the slopes of Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in the Alps, while on the other, a major part of the Netherlands lies below sea level. An arc of lowlands runs from the foothills of the Pyrenees in the southwest into Germany on the northeast. To the west of it lie the rolling hills of Brittany and Normandy, and to the east the Massif Central, the Ardennes plateau, the Vosges and Jura mountains, and finally, the Alps themselves. Climatically the western fringe of Europe is characterized by mild, generally snowless winters and cool, often cloudy summers. There is precipitation throughout the year, with slightly more occurring in the early autumn than in the rest of the year. Throughout the region, a broadleaf deciduous forest constitutes the native vegetation, though there are also extensive stands of pine in the sandy coastal districts of southwestern Fr...

Topographically, the south of Europe is dominated by young, rugged mountains, many peaks of which are over 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in elevation. Plains and lowlands make up only a small fraction of its total area. By far the most extensive lowland is the Po Valley of northern Italy. The Mediterranean basin occupies a transitional zone between the mild, moist climate of western Europe and the hot, dry climate of North Africa. Indeed, its climate may be thought of as a seasonal blend of the two. In winter, when the Azores high-pressure area is displaced to the south, the region receives almost its total annual precipitation, whereas in summer the northern displacement of the Azores high results in a prolonged period of drought. The alternation of rainy winters and dry summers produces a scrubby, xerophytic (drought-resistant) vegetation type known as maquis. Soils, too, reflect these extremes of moisture, being leached of their minerals and soluble nutrients in...

Although Europe is the second smallest of the major land areas of the globe, it is physically and culturally the most diverse. Because of this diversity, at least seven regions can be identified within the continent. One of these regions is the Mediterranean south, where there are four principal states—Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal—and a portion of a fifth—Turkey. This region is dominated by a dry, subtropical climate, and because its countries are overwhelmingly agricultural in character, this climatic pattern has a critical influence on their way of life. A second region might be termed the "western fringe," for here there are three major states—Belgium, France, and the Netherlands—whose location on the Atlantic doorstep of Europe has been of fundamental importance to their development: they have continental footholds but essentially maritime outlooks. A third region consists of the islands of Britain and Ireland. Each of these "insular realms,...

Europe's position in the middle latitudes on the eastern side of an ocean, with a coastline deeply indented by bodies of water, is a major controlling fact in climate. Marine influences, resulting in an absence of temperature extremes and in plentiful precipitation, high relative humidity, and a high degree of cloudiness, penetrate far inland north of the Alpine mountain zone.   Continental influences, resulting in extremes of temperature, relatively low precipitation, low relative humidity, and prevalence of clear skies, control the broad base where Europe joins Asia. These influences are in balance along a north-south belt through Norway, Denmark, and Germany. South of the Alpine mountain zone, seasonal migrations of the subtropical high-pressure system dominate. This produces marked seasonal variation in precipitation—winters are rainy and summers droughty. Summer temperatures are highest in the Mediterranean area: Athens averages 80° F (27° C) for July; Gr...

The coastline of Europe is more fragmented than that of any other continent. It is estimated to have a length of 50,000 miles (80,000 km). Of the shallow seas that indent the continent, the Baltic, fringing the North European Plain, provides water access from the Atlantic eastward into the Russian Federation and the Baltic Republics. With few spots deeper than 600 feet (180 meters), this sea is connected with the North Sea only by narrow channels. The major navigable channel past Copenhagen, Denmark, is less than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide at its narrowest. The North Sea, likewise shallow, fills the opening between the British Isles and the mainland. The White Sea indents the Arctic coast of the Russian Federation. All of these seas result from the drowning of lowlands by the melting waters of the Ice Age. Southern Europe is edged by the Mediterranean Sea, which is much deeper than the seas of the north and fills a series of basins. Compartmented by peninsulas and islands, t...

Europe is the northwesterly portion of the world's largest landmass, other parts of which are Africa and Asia. Also included in Europe are thousands of nearby islands, such as the British and Aegean islands, and several distant ones, such as Iceland and the Svalbard group. Europe is in fact a complex peninsula jutting westward from Asia. By tradition, the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus Mountains form the southern limit; the North Atlantic Ocean and its northeastward extensions, the Norwegian and Barents seas, the western and northern limits; and the Ural Mountains, Ural River, and Caspian Sea, the eastern limit. Thus outlined, the total area of the continent is about 4 million square miles (10.4 million sq km). Europe stretches from the margins of low latitudes into high latitudes beyond the Arctic Circle. The southernmost point on the mainland is Punta de Tarija on the Strait of Gibraltar at 36°2′ N. If islands are included, the southernmost...

Europe is one of the seven continents of the world. In area it is the second smallest, after Australia; but in population it is the second largest, after Asia. Because of Europe's location, its considerable economic resources, and its large population, this continent has played and continues to play a major role in world affairs. Europe is hard to define precisely because it does not form a clear-cut entity with respect to either geography or population. Geographically, it is simply one of several large peninsulas projecting from the vast Eurasian landmass. In the west and north it has clear boundaries in the Atlantic Ocean and the Norwegian and Barents seas. In the south the Mediterranean appears to form a similarly clear boundary, but in fact Mediterranean Europe, which is separated from the greater part of the continent by mountains, is much like North Africa and the Middle East in climate and topography.   This can be illustrated by reference to Turkey, wh...

Milan is the hub of a great network of railroads and highways that serve its industries and commerce. The city's industries are highly diversified and include such metalworking manufactures as aircraft, locomotives, and railroad equipment; automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, motor scooters, and bicycles; turbines and diesel engines; and agricultural machinery. The textile and clothing industries play a leading part in Milan's economy. Silk is still an important product of the region.   Italy's manufacture of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and artificial fibers is centered in Milan. Leather, processed wood and paper, food, and rubber are all products of its factories. The publishing, graphics, and printing industries have deep roots in Milan.   The city is an active market center for the rich agricultural region that surrounds it. It also serves as a wholesale market in various products for both domestic and international trade. Its annual trade fa...

Originally a Celtic settlement, Milan or Mediolanum as it was known, was seized by Rome in 222 B.C. It became the seat of the vicar of Italy and the residence of the emperors of the west in the 4th century A.D. By the Edict of Milan (313), freedom of worship was granted all religious groups in the empire, including the Christians. Saint Ambrose was bishop of Milan from 373 or 374 to 397. The Ambrosian liturgy he developed is still used in the city.   Though destroyed by the Goths in 539, the city revived in the 9th century. By the 12th century it was a free commune. It was sacked by Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158 and 1162, but survived and contributed to the Lombard League cities' defeat of Frederick at Legnano in 1176. At the Peace of Constance (1183) the emperor recognized Milanese independence. In spite of internal strife between Guelphs and Ghibellines and struggles with neighboring cities, Milan continued to grow.   The Torriani, leaders of the popul...

At the center of the city is the Piazza del Duomo, on one side of which is Italy's greatest Gothic cathedral ( duomo ). The apse of this white marble cathedral was begun in 1386. The work was continued by French, German, and Italian master masons. Although it was consecrated by Saint Charles Borromeo, cardinal and archbishop of Milan, in 1577, it was not completed until the late 19th century. The facade, finished in 1805–1809, is one of the cathedral's least impressive features. The exterior is adorned with a profusion of spires, statues, and other ornaments. There are 135 marble spires and many marble statues. The highest spire is topped by a statue of the Madonna. The cathedral's majestic interior is somber. The five aisles in the nave are separated by tall pillars. An impressive 16th century mausoleum by Leoni is in the south transept. On the north side of the Piazza del Duomo is the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, an arcade lined with cafes, restaurants, and sp...

Milan is a city and commune in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. Milan (Italian, Milano ) is also the capital of Milan province and of Lombardy. It is the second most populous city in Italy and the country's industrial, commercial, and financial center. It lies in the fertile Po plain midway between the Po River and the Alpine foothills. The climate is continental, with cold winters and hot summers. Fog and rain are frequent in the fall and winter months. Milan's cathedral marks the center of Milan, just as the site of the cathedral once formed the center of the Roman city of Mediolanum. In the Middle Ages, Old Milan grew up around the cathedral site. In the 16th century the Spaniards extended the city beyond its medieval limits. In time Milan outgrew the walls built by the Spaniards. Today the city's residential and industrial suburbs form the outer limits of the metropolitan area.   Streets radiate from the center of the city out to these sub...