Journey and Joy

In area, the European Russian Federation is as large as the other six regions of peninsular Europe put together, but its population is less than half as great. This is a reflection of the marginal quality of its land, which, despite an overall topographic uniformity, runs the gamut of climate, vegetation, and soil types. Rolling plains dominate the landscape of the region, but northwest of Moscow, along the middle Volga River, and in eastern Ukraine are hills whose elevations exceed 1,000 feet (300 meters). Because of its vast extent, the region drains in four different directions: northward into the Arctic Ocean, northwestward into the Baltic Sea, southwestward into the Black Sea, and southeastward into the Caspian Sea. The largest rivers in each of these drainage basins are the Northern Dvina, the Western Dvina, the Dnieper, and the Volga, respectively. Temperatures decline toward the north and east, while precipitation decreases toward the south and east. As a re...

The three Scandinavian states—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—together with Finland and Iceland form the most sparsely settled region in Europe, an indication of the marginality of their environment. Owing to topography and climate, nearly three fourths of Norway and fully seven-eighths of Iceland is unproductive land, incapable of supporting trees or crops. Most of the remaining one fourth of Norway is in forest, as is over one half of Sweden and nearly three fourths of Finland. In lowland Denmark, with its deep, lime-rich soils, the proportions are reversed—nearly three-fourths of the country being in crops or in pasture.   However, Denmark is almost totally lacking in minerals, except for limestone, sand, and clay. Iceland, too, being volcanic in origin, has no minerals of consequence, and such metals as Norway and Finland possess are mostly low-grade. Sweden, however, has large deposits of high-grade iron ore, in its central and northern areas. Norway mines c...

Two major lowland corridors cross eastern Europe: the northern plain, within which virtually the entire territory of Poland lies, and the Danube Valley, which is shared by Hungary, Croatia, Yugoslavia, and Romania. Between them lie the low mountains and plateaus of Bohemia and Moravia and the higher alpine peaks of the Tatra in Slovakia, as well as the arc of the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps in Romania. South of the Danube are the mountain cores of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Albania, and Bulgaria. The first four countries lie amid the Dinaric Alps, and the last is traversed by the Balkan and Rhodope ranges. Bulgaria's principal lowland area is the valley of the Maritsa River, which opens southeastward toward Turkey and the Aegean Sea. The climate of the east is continental, with cold snowy winters and warm humid summers. There is precipitation at all seasons, but it is insufficient to support a forest cover in the lower plains areas ...

The three states that make up the Germanic core of central Europe run the gamut of topographic diversity. The territory of eastern Germany, for example, consists almost entirely of the lowland North European Plain, and only its southern reaches extend into the foothills of the Central Uplands. Switzerland and Austria, on the other hand, are dominated by the Alps. In the former the most open and rolling country is the Mittelland plateau, which sweeps in an arc between the Alps and the Jura from Lake Geneva in the southwest to Lake Constance in the northeast.   In Austria the Danube Valley comprises the most extensive lowland, broadening out in the east to form the Vienna basin. Only western Germany embraces a complete cross section of all of these physiographic regions, including the northern plain, the Central Uplands, the Alpine foreland of Bavaria—a continuation of the Mittelland plateau of Switzerland—and the foothills of the Alps. In addition, in the southw...

The islands of Great Britain and Ireland are occupied by two states—the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (Eire). Despite their similarity of location, climate, vegetation, and soils, the two islands differ markedly in bedrock and hence in mineral endowment. Ireland, which is almost totally lacking in coal, was primarily agricultural until the late 20th century and remains relatively sparsely populated. Britain, on the other hand, is one of the nations of the world most richly endowed with coal and, thanks to its North Sea deposits of oil and gas, ranks as western Europe's major petroleum producer. The cradle of the Industrial Revolution, Britain is one of the most urbanized countries in the world and one of the most densely populated. London is the largest conurbation in western Europe, and the Birmingham agglomeration also has more than 2 million inhabitants. Owing to their location, the islands are the most maritime parts of Europe. For example, ...

The countries on Europe's western fringe are extremely diverse topographically. On one extreme, France extends to the slopes of Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in the Alps, while on the other, a major part of the Netherlands lies below sea level. An arc of lowlands runs from the foothills of the Pyrenees in the southwest into Germany on the northeast. To the west of it lie the rolling hills of Brittany and Normandy, and to the east the Massif Central, the Ardennes plateau, the Vosges and Jura mountains, and finally, the Alps themselves. Climatically the western fringe of Europe is characterized by mild, generally snowless winters and cool, often cloudy summers. There is precipitation throughout the year, with slightly more occurring in the early autumn than in the rest of the year. Throughout the region, a broadleaf deciduous forest constitutes the native vegetation, though there are also extensive stands of pine in the sandy coastal districts of southwestern Fr...

Topographically, the south of Europe is dominated by young, rugged mountains, many peaks of which are over 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in elevation. Plains and lowlands make up only a small fraction of its total area. By far the most extensive lowland is the Po Valley of northern Italy. The Mediterranean basin occupies a transitional zone between the mild, moist climate of western Europe and the hot, dry climate of North Africa. Indeed, its climate may be thought of as a seasonal blend of the two. In winter, when the Azores high-pressure area is displaced to the south, the region receives almost its total annual precipitation, whereas in summer the northern displacement of the Azores high results in a prolonged period of drought. The alternation of rainy winters and dry summers produces a scrubby, xerophytic (drought-resistant) vegetation type known as maquis. Soils, too, reflect these extremes of moisture, being leached of their minerals and soluble nutrients in...

Although Europe is the second smallest of the major land areas of the globe, it is physically and culturally the most diverse. Because of this diversity, at least seven regions can be identified within the continent. One of these regions is the Mediterranean south, where there are four principal states—Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal—and a portion of a fifth—Turkey. This region is dominated by a dry, subtropical climate, and because its countries are overwhelmingly agricultural in character, this climatic pattern has a critical influence on their way of life. A second region might be termed the "western fringe," for here there are three major states—Belgium, France, and the Netherlands—whose location on the Atlantic doorstep of Europe has been of fundamental importance to their development: they have continental footholds but essentially maritime outlooks. A third region consists of the islands of Britain and Ireland. Each of these "insular realms,...

Europe's position in the middle latitudes on the eastern side of an ocean, with a coastline deeply indented by bodies of water, is a major controlling fact in climate. Marine influences, resulting in an absence of temperature extremes and in plentiful precipitation, high relative humidity, and a high degree of cloudiness, penetrate far inland north of the Alpine mountain zone.   Continental influences, resulting in extremes of temperature, relatively low precipitation, low relative humidity, and prevalence of clear skies, control the broad base where Europe joins Asia. These influences are in balance along a north-south belt through Norway, Denmark, and Germany. South of the Alpine mountain zone, seasonal migrations of the subtropical high-pressure system dominate. This produces marked seasonal variation in precipitation—winters are rainy and summers droughty. Summer temperatures are highest in the Mediterranean area: Athens averages 80° F (27° C) for July; Gr...

The coastline of Europe is more fragmented than that of any other continent. It is estimated to have a length of 50,000 miles (80,000 km). Of the shallow seas that indent the continent, the Baltic, fringing the North European Plain, provides water access from the Atlantic eastward into the Russian Federation and the Baltic Republics. With few spots deeper than 600 feet (180 meters), this sea is connected with the North Sea only by narrow channels. The major navigable channel past Copenhagen, Denmark, is less than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide at its narrowest. The North Sea, likewise shallow, fills the opening between the British Isles and the mainland. The White Sea indents the Arctic coast of the Russian Federation. All of these seas result from the drowning of lowlands by the melting waters of the Ice Age. Southern Europe is edged by the Mediterranean Sea, which is much deeper than the seas of the north and fills a series of basins. Compartmented by peninsulas and islands, t...

Europe is the northwesterly portion of the world's largest landmass, other parts of which are Africa and Asia. Also included in Europe are thousands of nearby islands, such as the British and Aegean islands, and several distant ones, such as Iceland and the Svalbard group. Europe is in fact a complex peninsula jutting westward from Asia. By tradition, the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus Mountains form the southern limit; the North Atlantic Ocean and its northeastward extensions, the Norwegian and Barents seas, the western and northern limits; and the Ural Mountains, Ural River, and Caspian Sea, the eastern limit. Thus outlined, the total area of the continent is about 4 million square miles (10.4 million sq km). Europe stretches from the margins of low latitudes into high latitudes beyond the Arctic Circle. The southernmost point on the mainland is Punta de Tarija on the Strait of Gibraltar at 36°2′ N. If islands are included, the southernmost...

Europe is one of the seven continents of the world. In area it is the second smallest, after Australia; but in population it is the second largest, after Asia. Because of Europe's location, its considerable economic resources, and its large population, this continent has played and continues to play a major role in world affairs. Europe is hard to define precisely because it does not form a clear-cut entity with respect to either geography or population. Geographically, it is simply one of several large peninsulas projecting from the vast Eurasian landmass. In the west and north it has clear boundaries in the Atlantic Ocean and the Norwegian and Barents seas. In the south the Mediterranean appears to form a similarly clear boundary, but in fact Mediterranean Europe, which is separated from the greater part of the continent by mountains, is much like North Africa and the Middle East in climate and topography.   This can be illustrated by reference to Turkey, wh...